Part One Article On Unemployment Economics Essay

Programming for BIG Data Project

Programming for BIG Data Project Liliam Faraon These days, the measure of information created and put away without an activity has surpassed an information investigation capacity without the utilization of robotized examination procedures. The exponential development of information is more noteworthy than it has ever been seen, extricating helpful data from all the information created and change it into justifiable and usable data is the test. There is the place information mining accept a significant job, a lot of apparatuses are accessible for information mining undertakings utilizing computerized reasoning, calculations, AI and numerous others. In the current work two datasets were broke down, one with R and the other one Python. All the examination was situated in the CRISP-DM fundamental ideas: Business Understanding, Data Understanding, Data Preparation, Modeling, Evaluation and Deployment. The full technique was not applied in the venture, however understanding pieces of its procedure was crucial, the means are quite straight forward and give a generally excellent thought of each phase that information mining needs to experience and the criticism brought from each stage. The venture extension is constrained to recognizing designs in the information as opposed to foreseeing future, which could be inspected as a component of further investigation of the topic. The current Project was isolated into two distinct parts: Part 1: R Dataset Analysis and Part 2: Python Dataset Analysis. It contains likewise a concise contextualization about the Big Data Context and the significance of information mining. We live in when the quest for information is basic. Today, data accept a developing significance, and a need for any part of human action, because of the numerous changes we are seeing. At each second, we are confronting new ideas and patterns and we are astounded at how rapidly they are happening and influencing our lives, for example, the innovation that impacts all parts, social situations and contacts each business and life on the planet. The article composed by Bernard Marr, and distributed by Forbes a year ago brings a few insights that persuade that large information actually needs consideration: More information has been made in the previous multi year than in the whole history of human race; By 2020 around 1.7 megabytes of new data will be produced each second for each person on the planet. Consistently we make new information, a genuine model: just on Google 40.000 quests and inquiries are created each second, which makes the gigantic measure of 1.2 trillion pursuits per year. Facebook clients send on normal 31.25 million messages and view 2.77 million recordings consistently. Just in 2015, 1 trillion photographs were taken and billions of them were shared on line. In 2015, over 1.4 billion advanced mobile phones were dispatched, all fit for gathering various sorts of information and by 2020 the world will have over 6.1 billion cell phone clients comprehensively. Inside five years there will be more than 50 billion brilliant associated gadgets around the world, all created to gather, break down and share information. Retailers that influence the full intensity of huge information would have the option to expand their working by as much as 60%. Presently, just under 0.5% of information is broke down. All the Big Data created, have a few attributes: Rapid expanding volume, assortment, speed and information stockpiling and move, assembling and dissecting everything turned into a colossal test, yet by utilizing explicit projects intended to investigate the data on calculations based will beat the difficulties and the yield can be utilized to empower the dynamic procedure. For the R Project, a quite certain database was broke down: Tourists Visiting the South of Brazil, The data was gotten in the Government site, in the Tourism division. 1.1 Business Understanding The travel industry is a significant division that affects advancement of country economy. For some nations, the travel industry is the most significant wellspring of salary and employments age. Brazil is the fifth greatest nation on the planet with 8,511,965 sq km of region and the country is partitioned into 5 districts: North, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and South Regions. The Best in Travel 2014, by Lonely Planet control characterized Brazil as the best visitor goal in 2014. As indicated by the official Brazilian Tourism Website Around 6 million individuals visit the nation consistently, it is viewed as the primary touristic showcase in South America and the second in Latin America. It is assessed that just around 17% of all travelers visiting Brazil go toward the South area, created by three States: Parana, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Having as a top priority those numbers and the information that the most visited puts in Brazil do exclude the South of the nation a dataset was broke down to get some data and discover what number of guests have been there and where they were from. 1.2 Data Understanding Source information: http://www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br/estat%C3%ADsticas-e-indicadores.html Arrangement: csv, comma-isolated Size: 3.46MB Number of lines: 73.392 Sections: 1 Continent 2 Country 3 State 4 Year 5 Month 6 Count The innovations utilized were Excel and R Studio. 1.3 Data Preparation The first downloaded rendition had 534.792 columns, it incorporated the travel industry data from all the 26 states and it depended on information from 1989 to 2015. It was a very immense dataset that would not be advantageous to extricate helpful yields as Brazil had experienced numerous financial and social changes in this period. Exceed expectations was utilized to prohibit the data from different states just as the years prior to 2005. As the dataset was totally given in Portuguese Language the code was utilized to encourage representation: The following stage was taking a gander at the information, for a superior getting, Dimensions, Names, Classes and Summaries codes were composed: Results: Some table codes were composed to check every mix of factor levels: Results: The code round was rushed to determine number of decimal spots: Results: 1.4 Modeling A Linear Model was composed to create a superior information perception and examination of fluctuation: Â â A few charts were produced to have a superior comprehension about what number of travelers visiting every one of the states: A Bar plot was produced for better perception: Similar parameters were utilized to produce pie graphs: Parana with 33,01% and Santa Catarina with 29,48% have a fundamentally the same as number of guests and Rio Grande do Sul is the most visited place with 37,51%. With a smidgen of research the rate can be comprehended, as Rio Grande do Sul is the bigger of the three states, having more choices for the guests and Some of the greatest assembling businesses manufacturing plants in the nation are situated around there. In the wake of picturing where the vacationers go it is critical to know where they originate from. Consequently, a few diagrams were additionally produced: Realistic: Similar parameters were utilized to create some different designs: In the wake of breaking down segregated data, a diagram relating year and states was produced: It was additionally created a realistic posting all nations that visited the South of Brazil in the period: A flowchart was intended to speak to the calculation work process: Preparing information for a plot: 1.5 Evaluation Aggregating the dataset into illustrations and tables encouraged information perception and brought some significant proof that can be utilized for some reasons, extraordinarily advertising reasons, on characterizing an activity plan dependent on what should be possible to carry more vacationers toward the south locale. The diagrams indicating the rates of vacationers, were the ones that grabbed the eye, Europe had the bigger number of guests with 37,7%, trailed by South America with 22%, Asia with 11,7%, Africa with 9,2%, Central America and Caribbean with 8,8%, North America with 5,5% and finally Oceania with 5,1%. Taking a gander at these extents a couple of inquiries were raised and look into was important. Some significant realities appeared: the dataset brings just the quantity of individuals going for relaxation purposes, it doesn't check the measure of individuals on business, with could affect on the numbers, particularly from North America, the same number of them visit the nation for business purposes and broaden their stay on vacations. Another significant factor is that the data was gathered in the primary stop in the nation, and all the three states in the South don't have an enormous air terminal, normally they show up by association flights originating from Sã £o Paulo or Rio de Janeiro, where the fundamental global air terminals are arranged. The last significant component that could affect on the quantity of guests, is the way that the south of Brazil doesn't have a tight control of their outskirts and numerous individuals show up via land, typically driving from different nati ons in South America. As said before the travel industry part can be very investigated and it can affect in the income age. As indicated by the International Congress Convention Association (ICCA) Brazil is the host of numerous worldwide occasions in Latin America and the seventh on the planet, so why not influence on the data brought and draw in each one of those occasions toward the South of Brazil? The numbers in the dataset look a piece unreasonably comparable for consistently identified with the check of individuals visiting the states, yet anyway it gives valuable data. It is additionally imperative to see that Brazil is likewise gotten to by pontoon and land, uncommonly by travelers originating from Central and South America, as there is no outskirt control a portion of the numbers may be marginally extraordinary. The undertaking extension is constrained to distinguishing designs in the information instead of anticipating future which could be analyzed as a component of further investigation of the topic. 2.1 Business Understanding Each time an acclaimed individual passes away the media makes news; a few passings even take the components of outrages, particularly when there is the suspect of a self destruction, individuals follow the reports everywhere throughout the world. The time of 2016 appeared to be very s

Porters Five Forces Model

Porters Five Forces Model INTRODUCTION Through his model, Porter classifies five main competitive forces that affect any market and all industries. It is these forces that determine how much competition will exist in a market and consequently the profitability and attractiveness of this market for a company. Through sound corporate strategies, a company will aim to shape these forces to its advantage to strengthen the organizations position in the industry.For the purpose of this model, industry attractiveness is the overall profitability potential of the industry. An attractive industry will be one where the combined power of the competitive forces will increase profitability potential. While an unattractive industry will be one where the collective impact of the forces will drive down profitability potential.These forces, termed as the micro environment by Porter, influence how a company serves its target market and whether it is able to turn a profit. Any change in one of the forces might mean that a compa ny has to re-evaluate its environment and realign its business practices and strategies.An attractive market place does not mean that all companies will enjoy similar success levels. Rather, the unique selling propositions, strategies and processes will put one company over the other.Composition of ForcesWithin each industry, the effect of different forces will be different. This is why it becomes imperative to develop this model separately for every industry even if the same company is competing across different markets and industries. As an example, the airline industry has fierce competition among the two producers, Airbus and Boeing. The bargaining power of the buyers, all airlines, is fairly high. On the other hand, there is almost no threat of new entry into the market given high degrees of proprietary knowledge and high investments. There is also no threat of substitutes and the power of suppliers is also generally benign. On the other hand in the film business, there is a hi gh threat of substitutes from various other forms of entertainment. In addition, the power of suppliers (e.g. filmmakers, etc.) is also high as they supply the vital most input for the industry.Whatever the industry, there may be one or two forces that end up driving all strategy formation. It is not always easy to determine which force is the key one. An obvious force may not be the one increasing or decreasing profitability.HistoryIn 1979, Harvard Business School professor Michael E. Porter developed the five forces model. It was his first article for the Harvard Business review titles “How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy”. It was later detailed in his book on Competitive strategy. This model aimed to provide a new way to use effective strategy to identify, analyze and manage external factors in an organization’s environment.Porter’s work has been recognized as extremely important in the field. Despite criticisms regarding its applicability in a much altered world, it re mains one of the most widely used methods of industry analysis.The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy Interview With Michael E. Porter PORTERS FIVE FORCESThe five forces identified by Porter are divided into:Horizontal forces: Threat of substitutes, threat of new entrants, competitive rivalryVertical forces: Bargaining power of buyers and bargaining power of customers1. Competitive RivalryOne important force that Porter describes is the degree of rivalry between existing companies in the market. If there are more companies competing with each other, the resulting competitive pressure will mean that prices, profits and strategy will be driven by it.One company may end up having little or no power in its own industry if there is a variety of quality products are offered in the market in direct competition with it. Customers have the option of simply moving on to a different company easily. Conversely, in the absence of this rivalry, the company may be able to freely set pric es and profit margins without being dictated by what the customer finds attractive.When is competitive rivalry high?Competitive rivalry may be higher when:Similar sized companies operate in one marketThese companies have similar strategiesProducts on offer have similar features and offer the same benefitsGrowth in the industry is slowThere are high barriers to exit or low barriers to entry  2. Threat of new EntrantsThe competitive threat to a company’s business may not only be from existing players in the market but also from potential new entrants into the market place. If an industry is profitable, or attractive in a long term strategic manner, then it will be attractive to new companies. Unless there are barriers to entry in place, new firms may easily enter the market and change the dynamics of the industry.The particular dynamics of an industry that restrict entry into it are called barriers to entry The most attractive scenario for a new company is when a potential market ha s low barriers to exit but high barriers to entry. The economics of any industry will determine the level of difficulty faced when trying to enter this market.When are barriers for new entrants high?Barriers to entry may stem from things like:patents and proprietary knowledgeaccess to specialized technology or infrastructureeconomies of scale or government driven obstacleshigh initial investment neededhigh switching costs for consumers, loyal consumersdifficulty in accessing raw material and difficulty in accessing distribution channels3. Threat of SubstitutesWithin the framework defined by Porter, substitute products are those that exist in another industry but may be used to fulfill the same need. The more substitutes that exist for a product, the larger the company’s competitive environment and the lower the potential for profit. An example of this is that for a boxed juice producer, fresh juice, water and soft drinks are all substitutes though they exist in separate categories .A high threat of substitutes will impact a company’s ability to set prices that it wants. If a substitute is priced lower or fulfills a need better than it may end up attracting consumers towards it and reduce sales for existing companies.When is there a threat from substitutes?The threat of substitutes is affected by factors such as brand loyalty, switching costs, relative prices, as well as trends and fads.4. Bargaining Power of BuyersWhen buyers have the power to affect prices in an industry, it becomes an important factor to consider for a company.When is buyer power high?Buyers tend to have power over an industry if they are important to the company, this may be if the industry is such that buyers either buy in bulk, or can easily switch to another supplier. A limited number of strong buyers may be able to exert significant control over a seller. In addition, if a product is similar to its competitor with little or no differentiation, then there are chances that the company may need to let the supplier dictate terms in order to avoid losing the customer.5. Bargaining Power of SuppliersSuppliers provide the raw material needed to provide a good or service. This means that there is usually a need to maintain strong steady relationships with suppliers. Depending on the industry dynamics, suppliers may be in the position to dictate terms, set prices and determine availability timelines. Powerful suppliers may be able to increase costs without affecting their own sales volume or reduce quantities that they sell.  When do suppliers have power?Supplier may enjoy more power if there are less of them. Costs of switching to an alternate are high, or there are no alternates. A supplier may also be the only provider of a certain raw material. This may be the case in instances where a supplier holds a patent or have proprietary knowledge. Because of a lack of alternates, they may be able to withhold quantities or increase prices without losing sales.  HOW TO USE TH E MODELThe Porters five forces model is often used as a  starting point to evaluate a company’s position in its industry and to assess its level of competitiveness. Though this framework is generic and applicable to any industry, it is only effective if it is used in a specific context that applies directly to the company undertaking the evaluation.Porter also emphasized the importance of using this model at more basic industry level. If an organization operates in different industries, then it must develop a separate five forces model for each of its industries.  Steps To Follow When Performing AnalysisA company may follow three basic steps when performing an industry analysis,Gather information on each forceDuring the first step, the company should gather information about their industry using the five forces as a guide for classifying this information.Analyze results and display in a diagramAfter substantial information has been gathered, a team may sit down and analyze how eac h of the identified factors affect the industry. Every industry will have different factors affecting it differently. This makes it vital to not compare across industries or use another industry’s data.Formulate Strategy based on conclusions The analysis of factors affecting the industry can now be translated into specific strategies to further the interests of the company.Navigating the Model Development: Before, During and AfterIt is beneficial for a company working on a Porters five forces analysis to maintain an analytical frame of mind before the process begins, during the process and after everything has been completed. Some aspects to keep in mind are:BeforeUnderstand the goals of the analysis and expectations from itUnderstand the scope of the analysis and who are the potential beneficiariesAllow open and honest brainstorming session regarding these questions.DuringKeep a focus on the futureDo not focus on what could’ve been done better in the past, but focus on future i mprovementsAnalyze positives and negativesBe open to new ideas and possibilitiesAfterIdentify lessons learnt and how they can be used in the futureDocument positives and negatives. Identify best practicesUnderstand whether the analysis had the required impactFollow up on implementation plansRecord information from the analysis to be used in future decisionsPorters Five Forces of Analysis: How to Determine the Attractiveness of an Industry Models DOS and DONTSAs with any framework, there are specific ways to use this one successfully. In order to gain any benefits from a Porters five forces analysis it should:Not  be used on an individual company but rather in the entire industry. These findings can then be used to devise strategies for the company itself.Be used when there are at least three or more competing firms in the marketConsider the impact of the government on the industryConsider which stage in the lifecycle the industry isConsider the changing nature of industries and mark ets  CRITICISMSOver the years, people have challenged underlying principlesthat Porter based his five forces model on. Some of these criticisms have been:Doubtful AssumptionsAcademics such as Stewart Neill, have taken exception to what they call the three dubious assumptions made within the model. These are:The assumption that buyers, competitors and suppliers are separate entities that never interact, never collude and never influence each other directlyThe assumption that structural advantage or the creation of entry barriers is the source of valueThe assumption that there is always low uncertainty which allows participants in a market to always be able to plan ahead and counter competitor actions.The 6th ForceThrough game theory, Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale, added a new concept to the Porters five forces model. In the mid 1990s, they proposed the idea of complementary force which may have been termed a 6th force by Andrew Grove, former CEO Intel. These complemen tary forces may be the government or the public.Porter himself countered this addition to the model by the assertion that the government or public are factors that affect the five forces.EXAMPLES  IKEA © Flickr | Greg EmmerichThe five forces model was developed by Michael E. Porter to help companies assess the nature of an industry’s competitiveness and develop corporate strategies accordingly. The framework allows a business to identify and analyze the important forces that determine the profitability of an industry.In this article, we will study the Porters five forces model for industry analysis. We will look at 1) introduction to the model, 2) Porters five forces, 3) how to use the model, 4) model dos and donts, 5) criticisms of the model, and 6) example IKEA.INTRODUCTION Through his model, Porter classifies five main competitive forces that affect any market and all industries. It is these forces that determine how much competition will exist in a market and consequently the profitability and attractiveness of this market for a company. Through sound corporate strategies, a company will aim to shape these forces to its advantage to strengthen the organizations position in the industry.For the purpose of this model, industry attractiveness is the overall profitability potential of the industry. An attractive industry will be one where the combined power of the competitive forces will increase profitability potential. While an unattractive industry will be one where the collective impact of the forces will drive down profitability potential.These forces, termed as the micro environment by Porter, influence how a company serves its target market and whether it is able to turn a profit. Any change in one of the forces might mean that a company has to re-evaluate its environment and realign its business practices and strategies.An attractive market place does not mean that all companies will enjoy similar success levels. Rather, the unique selling propositions, strategies and processes will put one company over the other.Composition of ForcesWithin each industry, the effect of different forces will be different. This is why it becomes imperative to develo p this model separately for every industry even if the same company is competing across different markets and industries. As an example, the airline industry has fierce competition among the two producers, Airbus and Boeing. The bargaining power of the buyers, all airlines, is fairly high. On the other hand, there is almost no threat of new entry into the market given high degrees of proprietary knowledge and high investments. There is also no threat of substitutes and the power of suppliers is also generally benign. On the other hand in the film business, there is a high threat of substitutes from various other forms of entertainment. In addition, the power of suppliers (e.g. filmmakers, etc.) is also high as they supply the vital most input for the industry.Whatever the industry, there may be one or two forces that end up driving all strategy formation. It is not always easy to determine which force is the key one. An obvious force may not be the one increasing or decreasing profi tability.HistoryIn 1979, Harvard Business School professor Michael E. Porter developed the five forces model. It was his first article for the Harvard Business review titles “How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy”. It was later detailed in his book on Competitive strategy. This model aimed to provide a new way to use effective strategy to identify, analyze and manage external factors in an organization’s environment.Porter’s work has been recognized as extremely important in the field. Despite criticisms regarding its applicability in a much altered world, it remains one of the most widely used methods of industry analysis.The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy Interview With Michael E. Porter PORTERS FIVE FORCESThe five forces identified by Porter are divided into:Horizontal forces: Threat of substitutes, threat of new entrants, competitive rivalryVertical forces: Bargaining power of buyers and bargaining power of customers1. Competitive RivalryOne important force that Porter describes is the degree of rivalry between existing companies in the market. If there are more companies competing with each other, the resulting competitive pressure will mean that prices, profits and strategy will be driven by it.One company may end up having little or no power in its own industry if there is a variety of quality products are offered in the market in direct competition with it. Customers have the option of simply moving on to a different company easily. Conversely, in the absence of this rivalry, the company may be able to freely set prices and profit margins without being dictated by what the customer finds attractive.When is competitive rivalry high?Competitive rivalry may be higher when:Similar sized companies operate in one marketThese companies have similar strategiesProducts on offer have similar features and offer the same benefitsGrowth in the industry is slowThere are high barriers to exit or low barriers to entry  2. Threat of new EntrantsTh e competitive threat to a company’s business may not only be from existing players in the market but also from potential new entrants into the market place. If an industry is profitable, or attractive in a long term strategic manner, then it will be attractive to new companies. Unless there are barriers to entry in place, new firms may easily enter the market and change the dynamics of the industry.The particular dynamics of an industry that restrict entry into it are called barriers to entry The most attractive scenario for a new company is when a potential market has low barriers to exit but high barriers to entry. The economics of any industry will determine the level of difficulty faced when trying to enter this market.When are barriers for new entrants high?Barriers to entry may stem from things like:patents and proprietary knowledgeaccess to specialized technology or infrastructureeconomies of scale or government driven obstacleshigh initial investment neededhigh switching c osts for consumers, loyal consumersdifficulty in accessing raw material and difficulty in accessing distribution channels3. Threat of SubstitutesWithin the framework defined by Porter, substitute products are those that exist in another industry but may be used to fulfill the same need. The more substitutes that exist for a product, the larger the company’s competitive environment and the lower the potential for profit. An example of this is that for a boxed juice producer, fresh juice, water and soft drinks are all substitutes though they exist in separate categories.A high threat of substitutes will impact a company’s ability to set prices that it wants. If a substitute is priced lower or fulfills a need better than it may end up attracting consumers towards it and reduce sales for existing companies.When is there a threat from substitutes?The threat of substitutes is affected by factors such as brand loyalty, switching costs, relative prices, as well as trends and fads.4. Bar gaining Power of BuyersWhen buyers have the power to affect prices in an industry, it becomes an important factor to consider for a company.When is buyer power high?Buyers tend to have power over an industry if they are important to the company, this may be if the industry is such that buyers either buy in bulk, or can easily switch to another supplier. A limited number of strong buyers may be able to exert significant control over a seller. In addition, if a product is similar to its competitor with little or no differentiation, then there are chances that the company may need to let the supplier dictate terms in order to avoid losing the customer.5. Bargaining Power of SuppliersSuppliers provide the raw material needed to provide a good or service. This means that there is usually a need to maintain strong steady relationships with suppliers. Depending on the industry dynamics, suppliers may be in the position to dictate terms, set prices and determine availability timelines. Powe rful suppliers may be able to increase costs without affecting their own sales volume or reduce quantities that they sell.  When do suppliers have power?Supplier may enjoy more power if there are less of them. Costs of switching to an alternate are high, or there are no alternates. A supplier may also be the only provider of a certain raw material. This may be the case in instances where a supplier holds a patent or have proprietary knowledge. Because of a lack of alternates, they may be able to withhold quantities or increase prices without losing sales.  HOW TO USE THE MODELThe Porters five forces model is often used as a  starting point to evaluate a company’s position in its industry and to assess its level of competitiveness. Though this framework is generic and applicable to any industry, it is only effective if it is used in a specific context that applies directly to the company undertaking the evaluation.Porter also emphasized the importance of using this model at more ba sic industry level. If an organization operates in different industries, then it must develop a separate five forces model for each of its industries.  Steps To Follow When Performing AnalysisA company may follow three basic steps when performing an industry analysis,Gather information on each forceDuring the first step, the company should gather information about their industry using the five forces as a guide for classifying this information.Analyze results and display in a diagramAfter substantial information has been gathered, a team may sit down and analyze how each of the identified factors affect the industry. Every industry will have different factors affecting it differently. This makes it vital to not compare across industries or use another industry’s data.Formulate Strategy based on conclusions The analysis of factors affecting the industry can now be translated into specific strategies to further the interests of the company.Navigating the Model Development: Before, D uring and AfterIt is beneficial for a company working on a Porters five forces analysis to maintain an analytical frame of mind before the process begins, during the process and after everything has been completed. Some aspects to keep in mind are:BeforeUnderstand the goals of the analysis and expectations from itUnderstand the scope of the analysis and who are the potential beneficiariesAllow open and honest brainstorming session regarding these questions.DuringKeep a focus on the futureDo not focus on what could’ve been done better in the past, but focus on future improvementsAnalyze positives and negativesBe open to new ideas and possibilitiesAfterIdentify lessons learnt and how they can be used in the futureDocument positives and negatives. Identify best practicesUnderstand whether the analysis had the required impactFollow up on implementation plansRecord information from the analysis to be used in future decisionsPorters Five Forces of Analysis: How to Determine the Attracti veness of an Industry Models DOS and DONTSAs with any framework, there are specific ways to use this one successfully. In order to gain any benefits from a Porters five forces analysis it should:Not  be used on an individual company but rather in the entire industry. These findings can then be used to devise strategies for the company itself.Be used when there are at least three or more competing firms in the marketConsider the impact of the government on the industryConsider which stage in the lifecycle the industry isConsider the changing nature of industries and markets  CRITICISMSOver the years, people have challenged underlying principlesthat Porter based his five forces model on. Some of these criticisms have been:Doubtful AssumptionsAcademics such as Stewart Neill, have taken exception to what they call the three dubious assumptions made within the model. These are:The assumption that buyers, competitors and suppliers are separate entities that never interact, never collude a nd never influence each other directlyThe assumption that structural advantage or the creation of entry barriers is the source of valueThe assumption that there is always low uncertainty which allows participants in a market to always be able to plan ahead and counter competitor actions.The 6th ForceThrough game theory, Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale, added a new concept to the Porters five forces model. In the mid 1990s, they proposed the idea of complementary force which may have been termed a 6th force by Andrew Grove, former CEO Intel. These complementary forces may be the government or the public.Porter himself countered this addition to the model by the assertion that the government or public are factors that affect the five forces.EXAMPLES  IKEA © Wikimedia commonsIKEA is a Swedish company that sells furniture and home accessories. The furniture is modern and ready to assemble. As of 2008, it was the biggest retailer of furniture in the world. It was created in 1943 by 17 year old Ingvar Kamprad. In addition to simplistic furniture design and eco friendly solutions, the company is known to control costs, focus on operational details and efficiency and a continuous focus on new product development. This strategy has allowed the company to maintain its low costs over the years. At present, there are 349 IKEA stores in 43 countries.Porters Five Forces Analysis for IKEACompetitive RivalryThere is significant competition in the discount furniture market with companies like Ashley Furniture Home Stores, Home Depot or other local players. But IKEA has managed to create a clear differentiated position in the market and remains the global market leader in its industry.Threat of new EntrantsThere is little threat from new entrants. T he requisite expertise is difficult to replicate and financial investments are significantly high. In addition the market is saturated enough with the existing players that there is little attraction for a competitor large enough to threaten IKEA’s position.Threat of SubstitutesThere is little threat of substitutes as the target market for IKEA is unlikely to switch to higher end more classic styles of furniture. There are not many alternates that offer the breadth of options that are available at IKEA.Bargaining Power of Buyers There is enough competition in the market to afford some power to the buyers in the industry. Since IKEA has built up its USP with its competitive prices, customers can choose to switch if there is any increase in the prices. There is little switching cost, though loyalty may be a factor that prevents a switch.Bargaining Power of SuppliersSuppliers do not have substantial bargaining power as there many options available to IKEA around the world. There are numerous factories that have the requisite expertise to partner with IKEA. Despite this IKEA attempts to firm long term strategic partnerships with suppliers which benefits both supplier and the firm.Porters Five Forces Model Image credit:  Flickr | Greg Emmerich under Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic, Wikimedia commons under public domain.

Nokias Human Resource Management - 969 Words

Nokia: Human Resource Management (HR) – Personnel management To maintain a healthy, successful and efficient environment Nokia collaborates with its employees under the main goal to create an environment for all its employees where they can fulfill their potential. Motivation, encouragement and maintaining employees satisfaction and well-being at work is vital for Nokia to perform at its best. As a goods manufacturer Nokia collaborates with its employees within formal and informal networks to allow ideas to be exchanged easily. To encourage their employees, Nokia has adapted various HR techniques including pay system, training and developing employees, and fringe benefits. Rewards The total compensation of employees aims to not only†¦show more content†¦Nokia offers services, programs and guidelines to support employees’ possibilities to maintain work-life balance according to their changing needs and life situations. These work-life balance solutions may alter by country according to local needs, legislation, employment market situation and common practices. One service that Nokia provides its employees is teleworking and mobile working. This innovative service solution aims to have positive effects on quality of life, job satisfaction and job performance. Depending on the situation and needs, flexible working solutions can provide alternative modes of working such as teleworking at home or at other locations. Also flexible working hours is part of the flexible working solutions. Depending on the local market conditions, employees may take advantage of flexi time including flexible working hours and part-time working. Nokia also provides its employees with health care services. Nokia aims to maintain and improve the working environment and well-being of its employees. 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Contemporary Diet and Nutrition Essay example - 4351 Words

Running Header: -Final Project HW220-Final Project HW220: Contemporary Diet and Nutrition KAPLAN UNIVERSITY Prof Shantelle Weichers: Contemporary Diet and Nutrition HW220 5/22/2012 Introduction Unit 1 Dietary Trends and Nutrition Information to Remember Defining Diet and Nutrition Eating Patterns and Habits of Americans Nationwide Food Consumption Nutritional Principals and Standards Basic Food Groups Guidelines for Healthy Eating Relationship between Nutrition and Human Health Nutritional Status Emerging Health Issues Resources Health.gov USDA Medicine.net Tools MyPryimid Unit 2 Food Choices Information to Remember Defining Food Choices How Food Habits Develop Influences and†¦show more content†¦Conduct an Internet search on the dietary habits of a community in which you are interested. You can choose from the list below or select your own community. Prepare a 100-150 word summary of the information that you found on their cultural food preferences. You can use a search engine like Google or the Health Sciences Resource Room. Properly cite the website in your write up. * African Americans * The stereotypical diet of African Americans is best known as â€Å"soul food. Soul Food consist of foods that in most cases are high in fat, sodium, and cholesterol which in any diet would send you well on the way toward obesity. For a population that is notorious for developing nutrition based diseases, i.e. Hypertension and Diabetes, this alone should raise a flag for concern. Many well-known soul food items can consist of: 1. Green leafy vegetables, such as collard, mustard, turnip, and dandelion greens. 2. Grains such as rice, grits, corn bread, biscuits, muffins, dry and cooked cereals, and macaroni. 3. Meats are often breaded and fried. 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Johnson is now enrolled in English 2020, Utah Valley University This research was done as a Student at Utah Valley University, using the University Research Website, other Online Sources, and various College Textbooks related to nutrition. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jessica M. Johnson, 2172 Silver Tree Circle, Riverton, Utah 84065 Contact: jessicamjohnson26@gmail.com Abstract In this paper, I plan to debate the use of Dietary Supplements.Read MoreNutrition and Health Worksheet Essay1429 Words   |  6 PagesUniversity of Phoenix Material Nutrition and Health Worksheet Use Ch. 1 of Contemporary Nutrition, Ch. 2 of Visualizing Nutrition, supplemental course materials, the University Library, the Internet, or other resources to answer the following questions. Your response to each question should be 75 to 100 words. |What is nutrition? 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Cross Cultural Management free essay sample

For the purposes of this poster you are required to select a product or a service and demonstrate effectively through your poster how national culture has had an impact on the promotional or advertising strategies used to advertise that product or service in different countries. In doing this you are being asked to explore how national culture impacts on the way a brand or product is promoted in particular countries or regions. You may select a product (e. G. Shampoo, Chocolate, Beer) a brand (e. G. Coke, Nikkei, Apple) or a service (e. G. Airlines, health promotion, banking) o use as the basis for your exploration of the impact of cultural differences on its promotion. We will be looking at some examples in class based on airline safety promotions and condom advertising. You can assess the impact of culture on advertising in many ways and use various frameworks to assist with this analysis. Design/methodology/approach – Data for this exploratory study was obtained from a sample of 66 respondents from lodging organizations with membership in the International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH amp; RA). Data was collected by means of self-administered, web-based surveys. Findings – Participants in this study indicate that expatriate management skills vary in importance for hotel expatriates. The results of the analysis of variance demonstrate that the importance placed on the different expatriate management skills varies based on country of origin of both the expatriate and the parent company. Respondents and companies originating in different countries place more importance on certain expatriate management skills than others. Analyses also indicate that seven of nine cross-cultural training activities provided by the parent company are perceived to be effective for the success of an expatriate assignment. Practical implications – This study suggests that opportunities do exist for international hotel companies to better prepare hotel expatriates for foreign assignments by integrating more effectively issues of cultural awareness into their preparation programs. Additionally, although it may appear counter-intuitive for a future expatriate to focus on the structure and processes of the home company before embarking on a foreign assignment, the results of this study suggest that such knowledge is very valuable. Originality/value – While studies investigating expatriation management in the mainstream literature have been growing recently, only a handful of published studies have explored the issue in the hotel industry. Answers to the research questions that guided this study add to our knowledge and enhance our understanding of the issues related to expatriation management within the context of the hotel industry. The present study generated fruitful avenues, especially with regard to the issues related to the variation of management skills according to the country of origin of participants and parent company. Keywords Hotel and catering industry, Management skills, Country of origin, Expatriates Paper type Research paper Introduction The need of international hotel companies for effective expatriate managers has never been more genuine. The success of foreign operations of these hotel companies depends Expatriation in the hotel industry 885 Received 29 August 2010 Revised 2 December 2010 19 February 2011 2 March 2011 Accepted 9 March 2011 International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol. 3 No. 7, 2011 pp. 885-901 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-6119 DOI 10. 1108/09596111111167515 IJCHM 23,7 on technically competent and culturally adaptable expatriate managers (Yu and Huat, 1995). As these companies continue to be even more international in scope, the benefits of having such expatriates are numerous. For instance, expatriates running foreign operations are more likely to be familiar with the corporate culture and control systems of headquarters than are host-country managers. This results in more effective communication and coordination with the corporation (Barber and Pittaway, 2000). The 886 use of expatriates also provides managerial talent in developing countries where there is limited local talent, and enhances the global mind-set of the organization. Expatriates are also a better option than domestic managers when short-term international visits are insufficient for successfully growing a business in the target country.? However, there is also a downside to using expatriates. Expatriate failure rates (the rate at which expatriates return prematurely from foreign assignments) have been argued to be notably high in the international hotel industry (Magnini and Honeycutt, 2003; Yu and Huat, 1995). Financially, the impact of the resulting turnover has been described as very expensive (Magnini, 2009). In addition to monetary costs, failed expatriate efforts can also lead to negative organizational outcomes such as delayed productivity, poor relationships with local nationals, negative perceptions of the company, difficulty for expatriate successors, and ineffective repatriation (Bennett et al. 2000). Failed expatriates also adversely affect important relationships with clients, local businesses, and local government officials as well (Shay and Tracey, 1997; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985). The lack of cultural preparedness and training was considered to be a cause of expatriate failures, yet few companies have adequate processes for selecting and training their ex patriate managers (McGrath-Champ and Yang, 2002; Porter and Tansky, 1999; Kealey and Protheroe, 1996; Tung, 1987; 1981). Interestingly, research ndicates that some companies believe that training cannot do much to resolve the various issues associated with expatriate assignments (Black and Mendenhall, 1990). The aim of the current study is to contribute to our understanding of the issue of expatriation management within the context of the international hotel industry. Need for more research Despite the extraordinary interest of international hotel companies in expanding their operations globally, very little is known about their management of expatriates. While studies investigating expatriation management in the mainstream literature have been growing recently, only a handful of published studies have explored the issue in the hotel industry. This dearth of hospitality expatriation research prevails despite that the few empirical studies (e. g. Magnini and Honeycutt, 2003; Feng and Pearson, 1999) conducted within the context of the hospitality industry reveal that there is a real and growing need for hospitality research which facilitates the understanding of expatriation issues in the hospitality industry. Further, in reviewing the relevant literature, it is noticed that most studies on managing expatriates have been conducted across a variety of industries, with limited to no inclusion of the hospitality industry (see Shen and Darby, 2006; Linehan and Scullion, 2001; Caligiuri et al. , 2001; Enderwick and Hodgson, 1993). Many studies have focused on expatriates and companies originating from one country (e. g. Shen and Darby, 2006; Enderwick and Hodgson, 1993), or expatriates of one country working in either one other country (e. . Celaya and Swift, 2006; Selmer, 2001) or a very few number of countries (e. g. Linehan and Scullion, 2001). A need for empirical studies that include a wider range of participants and countries is called for in the literature (Shen and Darby, 2006; Caligiuri et al. , 2001). Additionally, Caligiuri et al. (2001) report that most of the cross-cultural training and experiences have been conducted with populations of international sojourners (i. e. students, pe ace corps volunteers), not with expatriate people. Magnini’s (2009) study on expatriate training focused exclusively on real-time training, leaving much to be learned about other types of cross-cultural training. While overcoming several of the drawbacks identified in previous empirical studies, the current study attends to this need. Given the lack of sufficient literature on international hospitality companies, a study, which sheds light on their practices in terms of the development of their international managerial cadre is warranted. Answers to the research questions that guide this current study will expand our understanding of expatriation in the international hotel industry. Research questions The specifics pertaining to expatriation in the hotel industry remain inadequately investigated. While overcoming several shortcomings in previous studies, this study sought to answer three questions. Management skills of successful expatriates While technical skills are often used by companies when selecting managers for international assignments (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996; Tung, 1981), existing literature presents a much broader inventory of competencies and skills that are needed for successful expatriates. Heller (1980) talked about personality, broad intellectual horizons, values of cultural empathy, friendliness, patience and prudence, impeccable educational and professional credentials; all accompanied with immaculate health, creativity, and respect for peers. In another study, Dulfer (1990) proposes that international managers must be effective team players, demonstrate appropriate reflection on complex problems, find new solutions in the face of unexpected changes, display confidence in solving problems, and motivate others to cooperate. McCall and Hollenbeck (2002) present similar but distinct competencies needed of an expatriate executive: open-minded and flexible in thought and tactics; culturally interested and sensitive; able to deal with complexity; resilient, resourceful, optimistic, and energetic; demonstrate honesty and integrity; maintain a stable personal life; and possess value-added technical or business skills. Some studies have looked beyond skills and characteristics to explore psychological dispositions and orientations. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) identified four dimensions that are believed to predict success in expatriation assignments: * (1)   self-orientation (the qualities that strengthen the expatriate manager’s self-esteem, self-confidence and mental well-being); * (2)   others-orientation (the bility to develop relationships and communicate with nationals of the host country); * (3)   perceptual ability (the ability to comprehend why people of other countries behave in certain ways; being nonjudgmental and non-evaluative); and * (4)   cultural toughness (how well the expatriate manager adjusts to cultures that are distant and unfamiliar). Expatriation in the hotel industry 887 IJCHM 23,7 888 A notable tendency in the literature is to attempt to identify a universal set of competencies and skills that can be expected to apply to the majority of expatriate jobs arou nd the world. However, it is reasonable to assume that different regions of the world and different expatriate jobs may require different emphasis on certain skills than others. Empirical studies conducted within the context of the hotel industry, for example, have generally suggested that the emphasis placed on certain skills and competencies may not completely conform to the more generic skills proposed in general expatriation management literature. A relatively early study by Shay and Tracey (1997) indicated that â€Å"the reasons for failure and the attributes required for hotel-management success abroad appear to be particular to the industry†. The study identified the following as the most desirable attributes for expatriate hotel managers: people skills, adaptability, flexibility, and emotional maturity. Similar beliefs are shared by D’Annunzio-Green (1997) who argued that due to the international nature of the hospitality industry, different needs for developing international managers do exist. Feng and Pearson (1999) designed a study to identify the selection criteria and skills/areas of knowledge that are important to the success of expatriate hotel managers in China. These researchers surveyed managers belonging to two hotel companies headquartered in Hong Kong and the USA. The study concluded that adaptation skills, interpersonal relations skills, cultural stress management, knowledge of Chinese culture, and survival language were the most important skills for hotel expatriates to master in China. Kriegl’s (2000) study used the alumni atabase of Cornell University’s School of Hotel Administration to draw a sample of 100 non-US managers for her survey on most important skills for international hospitality managers. The findings indicated that these skills, in a descending order, were cultural sensitivity, interpersonal skills, managerial flexibility, adaptive leadership, international motivation, intercultural competencies, ability to work with limited reso urce, understanding of international business, interest, international etiquette, stress management, functional skills and technical skills. Considering the generalizability limitations of the few hotel-related studies, the hospitality literature clearly presents a need for further understanding that is based on investigations with a wider scope, informed by hotel managers originating from and working in varied countries. RQ1. From a practitioner’s perspective, what are the most important management skills hotel expatriates should possess? Influences of country of origin There is evidence that national cultures vary and that a variety of managerial practices differ by national culture. Cultural value systems, which may differ from one nation to another, influence patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting (Hofstede, 1980). These patterns affect the ways of life, philosophies, and value systems of people of a particular nation. Empirical investigations by Ayoun et al. , (2010a,b) and Ayoun and Moreo (2009) verified a presence of national cultural differences among hotel managers belonging to different countries, demonstrated in different managerial philosophies and styles when developing business strategies. Hotel managers from different cultures may view the same managerial situation in significantly different ways and behave differently in any particular situation based on their beliefs and values. The country of origin is a variable that has been frequently explored in studies of expatriation management. For instance, in a seminal work, Tung (1981) found that among American companies surveyed the reasons for expatriate failure were cited to be (in descending order of importance) inability of the spouse to adjust, manager’s inability to adjust, other family reasons, manager’s personal or emotional maturity, and inability to cope with the larger verseas responsibility. Interestingly, in repeating this element of the study with the Japanese organizations, the reasons were ranked in almost exact opposite order of the American organizations. Among European organizations, the only reason for expatriate failure that respondents consistently marked was the inability of the spous e to adjust. Similar studies have been conducted with Japanese (Allen, 1988), British (Hamill, 1989), and Australian (Dowling and Welch, 1988) expatriates. A qualitative investigation in the hospitality industry by Gannon et al. 2010) found that managers from specific nationalities were preferred and demanded for specific positions. Similarly, the literature proposes that if expatriates originate from a country that is culturally similar to the foreign country where they will operate, they would generally be more successful in doing their work. A notable number of scholarly works in expatriation management (e. g. Black et al. , 1991; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985) support the notion that cultural distance between home and host cultures plays an influential role in expatriate success. For example, testing hypotheses based on transaction costs theory, the study by Colakoglu and Caligiuri (2008) suggests that firms rely on a greater number of parent country expatriates when they are culturally distant from the subsidiary. Several other studies, however, have shown that the relationship between country of origin of the expatriate and the host country is more complex than it is typically assumed. Empirical results by Selmer et al. (2007) call into question previous findings that substantiate the relationship between cultural distance and expatriate adjustment. Abdellatif et al. (2010) confirmed the ambiguous effect of distance (cultural and geographical) on internationalization strategies. In addition to the inconclusive results associated with influences of country of origin, an investigation into the potential influences of country of origin on the perceived importance of management skills of expatriates is warrant. RQ2. Do the management skills perceived by hotel expatriates vary by the country of origin of the expatriate and parent company? Cultural training Several authors (e. g. Hutchings, 2003; Varner and Palmer, 2002) point out that one of the key aspects contributing towards achieving effectiveness of expatriates is cross-cultural training. The term â€Å"cross-cultural training† can be applied to a variety of different training courses. Each in essence aims to develop awareness between people where a common cultural framework does not exist. In general, cross-cultural training has two parallel strands: cross-cultural awareness training and culture/country specific training. Cross-cultural awareness training deals with the manifestations of culture in the workplace and has many applications. Its main purpose is to evaluate and constructively tackle the challenges cross-cultural differences can bring to the workplace (Gliatis, 1992). Culture/country specific training is generally aimed at individuals or teams that regularly visit a foreign country or who frequently interact with overseas clients or colleagues. Such training usually focuses on areas such as values, morals, ethics, business practices, etiquette, protocol or negotiation styles with reference to one country. This better equips participants with the key skills that will help in building successful business relationships. Expatriation in the hotel industry 889 IJCHM 23,7 890 Most scholars of expatriate training recommend similar types of training for staff (Forster, 2000). The various types of cross-cultural training commonly discussed in literature include the following: * . cross-cultural communication (communicating effectively with different people in different languages and from different cultures); * . cross-cultural negotiation (etiquette of meeting, greeting, verbal and non-verbal communication, gift-giving, entertaining, building rapport, negotiation tactics, facts and statistics of negotiation); * . usiness and culture (understanding how culture influences business relationships, practices and policies and providing strategies to using it positively); * . business etiquette (understanding of the ins and outs of the target cultures for business); * . cross-cultural team building (working in multi-cultural teams either in the same office or across borders); * . cultural-diversity training (und erstanding the impact of multi-cultural diversity on both the harmony of the workplace and possible legal implications, including insights into an assignment specific religion, race or nationality); and * . outh cross-cultural training (focused on children and teenagers who may be accompanying their expatriate parents abroad). ?These different types of cross-cultural training allow the expatriate to target and improve specific weaknesses or gaps in their skills. An expatriate’s own cultural background greatly influences how successful he/she will perform in a foreign assignment. For example, it has been found that language barriers and cultural differences are among the highest management difficulty factors perceived by expatriate hotel professionals in China (Yu and Huat, 1995). Therefore, self-awareness, analysis of one’s own values and their effects on behavior need to be an integral part of expatriate training both before and during the foreign assignment. Once the expatriate understands his/her own cultural orientation, he/she can better focus on relevant elements in the target or host culture and make the changes in strategy necessary to achieve organizational goals. This concept can also apply to the family of the expatriate as well, as a major component of their support network. The time and costs invested in providing expatriates and their families with such cultural awareness briefings would contribute to minimizing the risk of early returns of expatriates and the potentially more damaging cultural offense and alienation of local employees and business partners (Hutchings, 2003). ?With specific regard to the hospitality industry, a study by Dewald and Self (2008) focused on cross-cultural training given to expatriate hotel managers in China to help them succeed in foreign environments. The authors interviewed three Directors of Training and Development at three different hotel chains. Based on the interviews, it was concluded that the overall level of cross-cultural training received by expatriate hotel managers in these three hotel chains was minimal. The scope of the training generally covered such topics as the â€Å"do’s and don’ts† while abroad along with perfunctory meetings with the human resource department at the new locations. Responding to increasing calls in literature, Magnini (2009) investigated the current state of practice of real-time training modes (sources of information and advices an expatriate can utilize to handle various situations as they arise) by hotel companies. Among other findings, the study found that the most commonly used source of real-time training is â€Å"local nationals†; the use of CD-Rom products was found to be inversely related to the number of previous expatriate assignments; and repatriates were utilized less when expatriates were assigned to an individualistic host nations or when there was a sizable cultural distance between home and host countries. Expatriation in the hotel industry Given the myriad of cultural training available, a difficulty faced by companies is? eciding on the training program. That is, â€Å"which will be the most effective in view of 891 the task for which the executive has been selected and the culture in which they are to? operate? † (Celaya and Swift, 2006). Another complicating factor, as observed by Selmer? (2001), is that it is still not clear whether traditional pre-departure cross-cultural? training can equip expatriates with the required cultural familiarity, despite the studie s? that have addressed the issue previously. There is limited generalizability of the? indings produced by research conducted in the hospitality setting. This is mainly due? to the small sample size, geographic concentration of the participating hotel chains,? and scope of training activities investigated. This demonstrates that more research? conducted around the world is needed to explore cultural training within the? international hotel industry. RQ3. What cross-cultural training activities that hotel companies provide are perceived by hotel expatriates to be the most effective for an expatriate assignment? Methods Sampling Representatives of the lodging organizations who are members of the International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH amp; RA) were identified as a source of potential expatriates in the international hotel industry. The IHamp;RA is an international trade association exclusively devoted to promoting and defending the interests of the hospitality industry worldwide. Organizational members of the IHamp;RA belong to hospitality properties as well as lodging and foodservice associations, all over the world. The representatives of these organizations are top executives, managers, directors, controllers and researchers. The international perspective and the score of experiences of these individuals made them ideal for the purpose of the present study. For this particular study, only the representatives of the lodging properties and associations were part of the study. At the time of this study, membership of the IH amp; RA included 60 hotel properties and 82 hospitality associations, located all over the world. A simple random sampling was conducted to determine which organizations are to be included in the survey. Using a cluster sampling procedure, five clusters were identified for the associations and three clusters were identified for the lodging properties, for a total of eight clusters of organizations included in the survey. After securing the cooperation of these organizations, an email message with an accompanying explanatory letter was sent to the contact person in the corporate offices of the eight organizations. The corporate offices then forwarded the invitation for participation to their qualified professionals. Contact persons in the lodging organizations were asked to forward the survey link to the professionals who have experience working as an expatriate at least once in their career, regardless of title or position. In doing so, the invitation to participate in the survey was limited to those IJCHM 23,7 who belong to lodging organizations and also have experience working as an expatriate at some point in their professional careers. Each organization was asked to provide information about their professionals who were currently on foreign assignment or had been on expatriate hospitality assignment. By sending the responses directly to the researchers, the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants and their responses was assured. From the eight organizations, there 892 were a total of 200 professionals who met the criteria set for the present study. A total of 66 responses were received in the survey. Upon the request of corporate offices of the participating organizations, follow-up mailings were not possible.? Table I shows the demographic information of the respondents. The respondents’ ages varied widely, with over 20 percent representation in three of the five age brackets. Respondents who were aged between 51-60 years old made up the largest segment (30 percent), while only 9 percent of the respondents were aged from 20-30 years old. Most of the respondents were male (73 percent). An overwhelming 61 percent of the respondents were married, 27 percent have never been married, and 3 percent of the respondents were widowed. Over half (55 percent) had received a graduate degree, while those with only some college were tied for the lowest percentage (3 percent) of responses with those who had acquired some graduate school. The majority (97 percent) had previous overseas experience or they had experience working outside of their home countries prior to their present job. More respondents had six months or less experience with being an expatriate manager. Most of the respondents were either top executives (42 percent) or they were a director/manager (41 percent). There was a considerable distribution of departments represented with a significant (33 percent) amount of respondents that did not clearly fall into one of the pre-determined categories. Overall, the expatriates in this survey saw themselves as successful, with only 18 percent responding that they were either not successful (3 percent) or just somewhat successful (15 percent). Survey instrument Given the global spread of the potential respondents and that they can easily access the internet, data for this study were collected via a web-based survey. Compared to other methods of data collection and when surveying expatriate managers, a web-based approach, Celaya and Swift (2006) state, could also be faster and less intrusive. The survey instrument was developed by the authors, guided by the research questions and following an extended relevant review of both the mainstream and hospitality literatures. In addition to the demographic and professional characteristics of the respondents, the survey instrument measured the opinions of the participants on the most important management skills by direct single question. The respondents were provided with a list of skills and were asked to rank the most important using a scale ranging from 1 (indicating the most important, to 5 for 5th most important). Cross-cultural training activities were measured with a single question, where respondents were asked to indicate whether their companies provided them with the various training activities. After collating the relevant variables from the literature, the initial draft was sent to academics for review and evaluation. Furthermore, the researchers interviewed two hospitality expatriates (one retired and one still active in a hotel facility in the southeastern part of the USA) to confirm the truthfulness and relevance of the information identified in the literature. Both groups of expatriates and Age 20-30 years old? 1-40 years old? 41-50 years old? 51-60 years old? 61 years old and above Gender Female Male Current marital status Married? Never been married? Widowed? Highest educational level obtained/achieved? Some College? College Degree (hospitality undergraduate degree)? College Degree (other undergraduate degrees)? Some Graduate School? Graduate School Degree? Other? Number of months as an expatriate executive in the host country Frequency Percent 6 9. 1 18 27. 3 14 21. 2 20 30. 3 7 10. 6 16 24. 2 48 72. 7 40 60. 6 18 27. 3 2 3. 0 2 3. 0 4 6. 1 8 12. 1 2 3. 0 36 54. 5 6 9. 1 16 24. 2 8 12. 1 8 12. 1 10 15. 2 0 0. 0 8 12. 1 8 12. 8 12. 1 2 3. 0 27 40. 9 5 7. 6 28 42. 4 4 6. 1 6 9. 1 8 12. 1 10 15. 2 4 6. 1 8 12. 1 22 33. 3 2 3. 0 10 15. 2 30 45. 5 16 24. 2 8 12. 1 Expatriation in the hotel industry 893 Less than six? 7-12 months? 13-24 months? 25-36 months? 37-48 months? 49-60 months? 61 months and above Missing/No answer Job title Consultant? Director/Manager? Educator? Top Executive? Department in which the respondents worked/are working Personnel Marketing/Sales? Food and beverages? General Management? Front Office? Financial control? Other? Level of perceived success as an expatriate executive Not successful? Somewhat successful? Successful? Extremely successful? No answer Note: n 1? 4 66 months Table I. Frequency distribution of the demographic and professional information of the respondents IJCHM 23,7 894 academics scrutinized the survey instrument and provided insights and suggestions on the language and length of the instrument. Following their feedback, changes were made to the survey instrument. In addition to the extensive review of the literature and deliberations with hospitality expatriates and academics, the rigor of the survey instrument was further ensured through pilot testing. A pilot study was conducted for one week among 30 subjects. Identified by the researchers based on their knowledge of their background, these subjects were or have worked as expatriates in one way or another, such as academic expatriates and I-CHRIE members. The researchers noted the comments made by the subjects, and applied them to the questionnaire before it was finalized. These managers and educators confirmed the accuracy of the directions and reaffirmed the clarity of each statement. Additionally, these individuals were asked to review the list of statements to ensure that behaviors relevant to international success had not been inadvertently omitted. The questionnaire was slightly modified based on the result of the pilot study. Results The results section is organized in three subsections, each addressing a research question relating to the management skills, the influence of country of origin, and cultural training activities. Several statistical analyses were performed to answer the research questions based on the survey responses. In addition to descriptive statistics, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test differences in cultural training activities based on the country of origin of respondent as well as the country of origin of the parent company. Furthermore, independent samples t-tests were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the cultural training activities provided by the parent company as perceived by the respondents. Most important management skills of the hotel expatriate The most important management skills identified by respondents for hotel expatriate managers are listed in Table II. Ordered from the highest to lowest mean scores: grasps Table II. Descriptive frequency distribution of the most important management skills that hotel expatriate executives should possess Management skills Grasps on how all the parts of the organization fit together? Has the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment? International negotiation skills? Gets along with subordinates, peers, and those at higher levels of the organization? Views the organization in a holistic manner? Understanding international marketing? Understanding international finance? Ability to work in international teams? Effectively receive ideas and information from others? Effectively convey ideas and information to others Note: n 1? 4 66 Frequency Mean 44 3. 59 52 3. 58 36 3. 44 56 3. 32 40 3. 30 38 3. 26 34 3. 24 54 3. 19 52 3. 15 58 3. 10 Standard deviation 1. 386 1. 13 1. 362 1. 574 1. 604 1. 349 1. 362 1. 555 1. 500 1. 575 on how all the parts of the organization fit together (mean 1? 4 3. 59); has the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment (mean 1? 4 3. 58); international negotiation skills (mean 1? 4 3. 44); gets along with subordinates, peers, and those at higher lev els of the organization (mean 1? 4 3. 32); views the organization in a holistic manner (mean 1? 4 3. 30); understanding international marketing (mean 1? 4 3. 26); understanding international finance (mean 1? 4 3. 24); ability to work in international teams (mean 1? 4 3. 9); effectively receives ideas and information from others (mean 1? 4 3. 15); and effectively conveys ideas and information to others (mean 1? 4 3. 10). Influences of country of origin of the hotel expatriate and parent company ANOVA was employed to test differences in cross-cultural training based on the country of origin of the hotel expatriate (see Table III). The F test indicates that the importance placed on the different expatriate management skills varies based on country of origin. The variables that were statistically significant were: understanding international marketing (p 1? 4 0:038); ability to work in international teams (p 1? 0:027); grasps on how all the parts of the organization fit together (p 1? 4 0:045); and views the organization in a holistic manner (p 1? 4 0:004). ANOVA test was also used to examine the relationship between country of origin of the parent company and the various management skills. The results, presented in Table IV, indicate that the management skills of understanding international finance (p 1? 4 0:000), international negotiation skills (p 1? 4 0:002), has the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment (p 1? 4 0:027), and grasps on how all the parts of the organization fit together (p 1? 0:018) vary by the respondents’ location of the parent company (i. e. Australia, China, India, the Middle East region, Switzerland, Thailand and the USA). Tukey’s HSD multiple comparisons revealed that on the item of â€Å"understanding international finance†, companies from Australia, China, India, the Middle East region, Switzerland, Thailand and the USA were significantly different from each other. Also on the variable of â€Å"international negotiation skills†, companies from Switzerland are significantly different than their counterparts from China, India, and the Middle East region. Expatriation in the hotel industry 95 Management skills Effectively convey ideas and information to others Effectively receive ideas and information from others Understanding international finance? International negotiation skills Understanding international marketing? Ability to work in international teams? Gets along with subordinates, peers, and those at higher levels of the organization? Has the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment? Grasps on how all the parts of the organization fit together Views the organization in a holistic manner Notes: *Denotes significance at p # 0. 5; n 1? 4 66 Levene’s statistic 5. 880 6. 124 5. 922 2. 558 3. 423 5. 204 4. 439 3. 638 3. 638 4. 085 F Sig. 1. 133 0. 386 1. 246 0. 330 2. 400 0. 064 1. 970 0. 117 2. 784 0. 038 * 3. 051 0. 027 * 2. 193 0. 085 2. 389 0. 065 2. 650 0. 045 * 4. 753 0. 004 * Table III. One-way ANOVA of the relationship between management skills and the respondent’s country of origin IJCHM 23,7 896 Table IV. One-way ANOVA of the relationship between management skills and location of the parent company Management skills Effectively convey ideas and information to others Effectively receive ideas and information from others Understanding international finance? International negotiation skills Understanding international marketing? Ability to work in international teams? Get along with subordinates, peers, and those at higher levels of the organization? Has the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment? Grasps on how all the parts of the organization fit together Views the organization in a holistic manner Levene’s statistic F 5. 880 1. 612 6. 124 2. 09 5. 922 23. 264 2. 558 5. 629 3. 423 2. 214 5. 204 2. 273 4. 439 2. 441 3. 638 3. 103 3. 638 3. 433 4. 085 2. 575 Sig. 0. 198 0. 067 0. 000 * 0. 002 * 0. 087 0. 080 0. 064 0. 027 * 0. 018 * 0. 054 Notes: *Denotes significance at p # 0. 05; Factor variable: location of parent company (Australia, China, India, the Middle East region, Switzerland, Thailand and USA) Most effective cross-cultural traini ng activities for the hotel expatriate Table V shows the independent samples tests of the effectiveness of the cross-cultural training activities provided by the parent company. The effectiveness of the training program provided by the parent company had a four-point scale: * . 1 1? 4 for not effective; * . 2 1? 4 for moderately effective; * . 3 1? 4 for effective; and * . 4 1? 4 for extremely effective. ?The t values indicate that seven of the nine cross-cultural training activities provided by the parent company were statistically significant: * . cross-cultural team building, t 1? 4 3:241 (p 1? 4 0:002); * . cross-cultural management, t 1? 4 3:352 (p 1? 4 0:002); * . cross-cultural negotiation, t 1? 4 3:639 (p 1? 4 0:001); Mean Levene’s statistic t Sig. Table V. Independent samples tests of the effectiveness of the cultural training activities provided by the parent company Cross-cultural sensitivity training 2. 83 Cross-cultural team building 2. 88 Cross-cultural management 2. 84 Cross-cultural negotiation 3. 11 Cultural diversity training 2. 67 Cross-cultural relocation 2. 82 Youth cross-cultural training 3. 25 Business amp; Culture 2. 89 Business Etiquette 2. 71 Notes: *Denotes significance at p # 0. 05 9. 213 1. 827 0. 597 3. 241 0. 989 3. 352 0. 024 3. 639 5. 818 0. 487 0. 895 2. 754 0. 095 4. 498 0. 019 5. 086 0. 597 3. 241 0. 074 0. 002 * 0. 02 * 0. 001 * 0. 628 0. 008 * 0. 000 * 0. 000 * 0. 002 * Perceived effectiveness of the cross-cultural training activities provided by the parent company * . cross-cultural relocation, t 1? 4 2:754 (p 1? 4 0:008); * . youth cross-cultural training, t 1? 4 4:498 (p 1? 4 0:000); * . business and culture, t 1? 4 5:086 (p 1? 4 0:000); and * . business etiquette, t 1? 4 3:241 (p 1? 4 0:002). ? The results showed that cross-cultural sensitivity training and cultural diversity training, with t values of 1. 827 and 0. 487 respectively, were not perceived to be effective. ?Discussion and conclusions ? Participants in this study indicated that management skills vary in importance for hotel expatriate. An interesting finding is that the two highest ranked skills (grasping on how all the parts of the organization fit together; and the mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the organization and its environment) and the fourth and fifth ranked skills (getting along with subordinates, peers, and those at higher levels of the organization; and viewing the organization in a holistic manner) relate to the expatriate’s ability to understand and communicate back to the home organization. Although there exists some literature that has found the benefits of organizational support for expatriates (Avril and Magnini, 2007), it would perhaps appear counter-intuitive for a future expatriate worker to focus on the structure and processes of the home company before embarking on a foreign assignment. However, the results of this study suggest that such knowledge is very valuable. The third, sixth, seventh, and eighth ranked skills (international negotiation skills; understanding international marketing; understanding international finance; and the ability to work in international teams respectively) are those that are more oriented toward facilitating intercultural contact and foreign operations. The balancing of expatriate work skills presented by this study is similar to the cultural balancing as studied by Tung (1987), in that the most popular method for acculturation was to take elements from both the home culture and the host culture to operate effectively. On a similar note, soon-to-be expatriate managers should not neglect the development of their ability to work effectively with their home corporation. ?Perceived importance of management skills varied by the hotel expatriate’s country of origin. The items that were statistically significant included: understanding international marketing; ability to work in international teams; grasping on how all the parts of the organization fit together; and viewing the organization in a holistic manner. This is in line with the results obtained by Feng and Pearson (1999) who found that hotel expatriates, and their spouses, originating from Asian countries tended to experience fewer adaptability difficulties while in China than their European counterparts. Asian hotel expatriates were found to attach relatively more importance to human relations skills. The importance given to different management skills also varied according to the location of the parent company, which could also suggest that there is a difference on the development of different management skills of managers based on the location of the parent company as well. Hotel companies originating in Australia, China, India, the Middle East region, Switzerland, Thailand and the USA differed on the extent of emphasis they place on the skills of: understanding international finance, international negotiation skills, understanding the overall workings of the organization and its environment, and how all the parts of the Expatriation in the hotel industry 897 IJCHM 23,7 organization fit together. This suggests that parent companies value their own organizational culture and they want their foreign branch companies to adhere to this. Cultural training activities that the parent company provided were found to be exceedingly effective for the success of an expatriate assignment. In summary, out of nine cultural training activities provided by the parent company, seven were perceived to be effective and two were perceived to be ineffective. The seven effective 898 cross-cultural training activities provided by the company were: * (1)   cross-cultural team building; * (2)   cross-cultural management; * (3)   cross-cultural negotiation; * (4)   cross-cultural relocation; * (5)   youth cross-cultural training; (6)   business and culture; and * (7)   business etiquette. The two cross-cultural training activities that were ineffective were: cross-cultural sensitivity training; and cultural diversity training. This is contrary to the findings of Kriegl (2000), who found that cultural sensitivity was the highest ranked skill by hospitality managers in her study. However, the ineffectiveness of these two cross -cultural training activities may have been caused by the inability of the organizations that employed the respondents to encourage them to participate in such training. Another reason could be the content of the training program may not be interesting and interactive, or managers may have perceived the training as redundant when considered with cross-cultural team building, cross-cultural management, and international business and culture training. A practical implication of these findings is that opportunities do exist to better prepare hotel expatriates for foreign assignments by integrating more effectively issues of cultural awareness into their preparation programs. In conclusion, the participants in this survey perceived the management skills of hotel expatriate more or less similarly. It can be stated fairly that they agree as what are the â€Å"right† management skills that are important for hotel expatriates to master. However, differences in perceived emphasis on management skills of a hotel expatriate are seen more clearly when considering the country of origin of the expatriates and their parent companies. Respondents from different countries place more importance on certain expatriate management skills than others. Furthermore, the findings of this study suggest that, at least for the companies and organizations represented in this sample, the hotel industry provides good coverage of cultural training activities. This confirms the tendency among international hospitality businesses, as reported by D’Annunzio-Green (1997), to place a high priority on developing managers for international postings. Hotel expatriates are responding positively to exposure to cultural training that is offered by their companies and perceive these activities as valuable to them in their expatriate assignments. Nevertheless, as the hotel industry continues to internationalize, more demands will be placed on the roles of expatriate hotel managers. Hotel companies will find it necessary to provide opportunities for these expatriates to acquire even wider skills and knowledge than were needed before. Limitations and future research The generalizability of the results of this exploratory study may be rather limited for different reasons. The accuracy of the findings relied on self-reported data, with the possible associated reporting bias. The survey instrument was restricted to a number of expatriate management skills, which are frequently mentioned in expatriation management literature. Other skills, however, could be of importance as well. The non-response bias could not be assessed in the present study because of the unavailability of an external source that can provide the relevant characteristics of hotel expatriates around the world for comparing the characteristics of respondents with the non-respondents. Due to the cross-sectional character of this study, a comparison of the characteristics between the early and late respondents could not be established. Accordingly, it is possible that expatriates who responded to this survey may not be fully representative of those who did not. This study is meant as a step toward enhancing our understanding of the issues related to expatriation management within the context of the hotel industry. The present study generated fruitful avenues, especially with regard to the issues related to the variation of management skills according to the country of origin of participants and parent company. Certainly, more research needs to be undertaken. Future research needs to test the generalizability of the findings of this study. Utilizing a larger sample size, with wider representation of different countries around the world can contribute to toward this greater generalizability. Other extensions can be investigated. In particular, future studies should address underlying causes for differences in perceived importance of management skills among culturally-different hotel expatriates. For example, cultural dimensions as identified by Hofstede (1980) can be utilized in an attempt to explain such differences. Furthermore, a study that brings together data from several segments of the larger hospitality industry would greatly illuminate the magnitude of differences that may exist. Such investigation will make comparison with the present results more informing. 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Corresponding author Gina Fe Causin can be contacted at: [emailprotected] edu To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [emailprotected] com Or visit our web site for further details: www. emeraldinsight. com/reprints Expatriation in the hotel industry 901